The Road to Basra - 1914

Indledning

Den følgende artikel af Christopher Trevelyan stammer fra hjemmesiden For the King-Emperor - The Indian Army on Campaign during the Edwardian & Georgian eras 1901-1947.

Jeg har stort set bibeholdt den originale tekst, men suppleret den med enkelte noter og tilføjelser, herunder ikke mindst et kort, som skulle gør det lettere at holde rede på detaljerne. Artiklen indeholder ingen kildeangivelser, hvorfor de her anførte, alene er mine kilder.

Introduction

Although Great Britain had maintained very friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire throughout the nineteenth century, even at one point going to war to preserve Ottoman territorial integrity, a rift between the two powers had developed towards the end of the century under the leadership of Prime Minister William Gladstone. As a result, Britain's influence over the Ottoman Empire began to decline, and Germany slowly emerged as the new friend and ally of the Turks for the twentieth century. Although German influence in the Turkish Government can be traced back to 1875, close political and economic ties did not reach fruition until roughly 1900. The most famous example of which was the proposed German financed Berlin-Baghdad Railway, which was finally agreed upon to begin construction in 1903.

With the approach of the Great War, it was hoped in both India and Britain that Turkey would remain neutral in the conflict. Although the majority of Turks, even within the Government, preferred a policy of neutrality, a small but influential pro-German war party led by the charismatic Enver Pasha saw a major new global war as an opportunity to revitalize the Ottoman Empire through the defeat Russia and the end of European intervention in the Middle East. Being aware of the plotting of Enver Pasha and the influence of Germany over the Turkish Government , Britain had no choice but to prepare to defend her interests in the region should it come to war. One such area of interest was the Persian Gulf.

British Indian interest in the Persian Gulf region can be traced back to 1622, when the Honourable East India Company signed an agreement with Persia in which the Company would use its navy to defend the Gulf and expel the Portuguese, who had established a trading monopoly in the region. Since that early beginning, the security of Persia and the Gulf had been of great importance to the Indian Government for two main reasons. These were the continued preservation of the free and unmolested trade of Indian and British shipping (the Gulf had been dominated by 'Trucial' 1) Arab pirates for over a century, until three Honourable East India Company military expeditions forced them to sue for peace in 1819) and the prevention of any other European power, in particular Russia, from establishing its influence anywhere near India, including Persia.

The Persian Gulf gained even more importance to Great Britain when oil was discovered in southwest Persia in 1908. To harvest this valuable resource, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company was established in 1909, and a great pipeline was built from the Persian oilfields to a refinery located on Abadan Island in the Shatt-al-Arab (the single river that connects the Tigris and Euphrates to the Persian Gulf.) In 1912, the importance of Persian oil became even more pronounced when the Royal Navy switched from coal to oil as its primary source of fuel. It was thus decided in Great Britain that if Turkey should side with Germany in the approaching war, the Persian oilfields should be secured, and this would be the task of the Indian Government as Persia and the Gulf were well within its traditional sphere of influence.

Expeditionary Force 'D'

By September 1914, it had become clear that Turkey was preparing for war, and it was only a matter of time before she entered the conflict on Germany's side. In anticipation, three Royal Navy vessels, the HMS Odin, the HMS Espiegle and the HMS Dalhousie entered the Shatt-al-Arab in order to protect the Abadan Island oil refineries. Soon thereafter, on October 7th, a formal letter from the Turkish Government was delivered to the HMS Espiegle essentially stating that the RN ships were violating Turkish sovereignty and that they must depart from the Shatt-al-Arab within 24 hours. The British however, were unwilling to leave their interests defenceless, and in any event, since one bank of the Shatt belonged to Persia, Turkey's control over it was not absolute. Throughout the rest of October, the Turks and the Royal Navy sat in an uneasy peace, with both sides hurriedly preparing for the war they knew was coming. On October 31st, the Commander of the Espiegle learnt through a telegram that the Turkish Navy had bombarded the Russian port of Odessa in the Black Sea on October 28th, thus effectively declaring war. On November 5th, Great Britain officially declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The very next day, the HMS Espiegle engaged and silenced a significant body of Turks who had constructed a series of trenches opposite Abadan Island in a hotly contested affair. The war in Mesopotamia had begun.

Back in India, preparations had well been underway to send Indian Army contingents throughout the Empire. The largest to set sail was Expeditionary Force 'A', whose destination was to be the fields of France and Flanders. Other contingents were sent to German East Africa (Expeditionary Force 'B'), Egypt, and numerous other corners of the Empire. Mesopotamia was of course also on the list of theatres requiring the presence of the Indian Army. Before Turkey attacked Russia, and while the Royal Navy prepared for war in the Shatt-al-Arab, the 16^th Infantry Brigade (2^nd Bn. Dorsetshire Regiment., 20^th Duke of Cambridge's Own Infantry (Brownlow's Punjabis, 104^th Wellesley's Rifles, 117^th Mahrattas and 1^st Indian Mountain Artillery Brigade (23^rd (Peshawar) Battery (Frontier Force) and 30^th Battery 2)) (a total of 4,731 officers and men), departed from Bombay and set sail for Mesopotamia on October 16th, under the command of Brigadier-General W.S. Delamain 3).

This was the advanced striking force of Expeditionary Force 'D'. General Delamain's instructions were to occupy Abadan Island in order to protect the oil refineries there, cover the landing of reinforcements, and assure local Arabs of British support for them against the Turks. It was estimated that there were as many as 15,000 Turkish soldiers and gendarmerie throughout Mesopotamia, while as many as 8,000 infantry, 500 cavalry and 58 guns were located in southern Mesopotamia and at Basra (the Turkish 38^th Division and the 26^th Regiment). The level of training of these soldiers was thought to be poor, and the quality of their equipment was also considered to be poor.

The Opening Rounds of the Mesopotamia Campaign

After the coast had been cleared of mines, and under the cover of the guns of the HMS Odin, Delamain's first objective was to capture the town and fort of Fao, which was located at the mouth of the Shatt-al-Arab. On November 6th, the same day that the Espiegle was engaging Turkish troops up the Shatt, a small contingent of Marines supported by 2 mountain guns, and three companies of infantry (made up of the Dorsets, 117^th Mahrattas, and 20^th Punjabis) landed four miles above the fort, and captured an important telegraph station. Following this, the force advanced south, captured the fort at Fao without opposition, and then re-embarked leaving behind a company of the 117^th as a garrison.

With the mouth of the Shatt-al-Arab secured, Delamain's next move was to proceed up the Shatt in order to secure Abadan Island. Two days after the landing at Fao, and with few Turks in sight, Delamain choose Sanniya, which was located two and a half miles north of Abadan Island on the Turkish side, to land his force. Over the next two days, the 16^th Brigade proceeded to successfully disembark, albeit with some difficulty due to strong winds and totally inadequate landing craft. By November 10th, Force 'D' was entirely landed. Unlike the initial landing attempt of Expeditionary Force 'B' in German East Africa, which was an unmitigated disaster, the first moves of Force 'D' went without a hitch. A potentially dangerous amphibious assault in hostile territory was conducted without the enemy causing any loss of life and with Delamain effectively fulfilling his first objective.

It would not be long however, for the Turks to make their presence felt. On November 11th, Delamain learnt from Sheik Mohammerah, a British ally that a Turkish force of roughly 600 men with artillery under the command of Sami Bey planned to attack at dawn. As a result, when the Turks did strike at approximately 5:30, General Delamain was prepared for them. The bulk of the attack stuck one company of the 117^th Mahrattas that was located in an old mud fort. The 117^th had 'no difficulty holding their position', and a counter-attack by the 20^th Punjabis amongst a grove of date palms drove off the Turks, who suffered at least 80 casualties. Two British officers were wounded (one died later), one Indian was killed and two Indian officers and five Indian other ranks were also wounded. Delamain initially wanted to pursue the fleeing Turks, but not having heard news of any reinforcements, he prudently decided that his small force should remain on the defensive near Abadan Island to protect the facilities there.

Reinforcements for Force 'D'

General Delamain did not however, have to wait for long to hear from his expected reinforcements. On November 13th, he received news that General Sir A.A.Barrett had arrived with the 10^th Brigade RFA (63^rd, 76^th and 82^nd Batteries), the 18^th Infantry Brigade (2^nd Bn. Norfolk Regiment, 7^th Duke of Connaught's Own Rajputs, 110^th Mahratta Light Infantry, 120^th Rajputana Infantry), the 48^th Pioneers, two squadrons of the 33^rd (Queen Victoria's Own) Light Cavalry 4) and supporting elements 5) (a total of 7,046 officers and men).

General Barrett took over command from General Delamain (who remained in command of the 16^th Brigade) and brought with him orders to go beyond simply protecting Abadan Island; the new objective of Force 'D' was the capture of Basra. As the first step towards that goal, reconnaissance patrols had revealed that the Turks, estimated at 1,200 men with 3 machine guns and 4 mountain guns, were building up at Saihan, which was only about four miles from the British camp. It was decided at once to dislodge this force.

The task fell upon General Delamain, and he took with him the Dorsets, 104^th Rifles and the 30^th Mountain Battery, while the 20^th Punjabis and 23^rd Mountain Battery formed up as his reserve. On the morning of the 15th, as his forced neared Saihan, the Turks opened fire with machine guns, rifle fire and artillery at roughly 1,200 yards. Delamain ordered the 104^th to take the Turk's left flank, which they did in 'capital style' under the covering fire of the 23^rd Mountain Battery. At that time, the Dorsets joined in, and with the support the 20^th Punjabis who had also moved up into the fray, they boldly and successfully rushed the Turks, who had been putting up significant resistance. Soon thereafter, after a period of slow but steady advance, the three battalions captured the Turkish camp, and destroyed most of the supplies and equipment that the Turks had left there. Fearing the possibility of Turkish reinforcements, and given that his orders were to dislodge the Turks without becoming too heavily engaged, General Delamain ordered his force to withdraw, which they did without harassment. After the engagement, it became clear that the Turkish force actually numbered over 3,100, of which roughly 160 became casualties. The British force suffered 9 killed, with another 53 wounded. Saihan was a clear British victory - an attacking force roughly half the size of the entrenched Turk defenders essentially ploughed through the Turkish left flank and captured their camp without facing any reverses of note.

Two days later, after the Anlgo-Indian reinforcements had finally been disembarked, it was decided to strike with full force at the Turks, who had by then fallen back roughly five miles up the Shatt-al-Arab to Sahil, with the remainder of their force still further north at Baljaniya 6). Upon approach, it became evident that the Turks, numbering roughly 3,500 with 12 guns and 1,000 Arab allies, had entrenched along a roughly three mile stretch between an old Mosque near the town of Zain and an old mud fort near Sahil further south. Under covering fire of the RN vessels in the Shatt-al-Arab, and enduring a couple of rainfall downpours that turned the sand into mud, the 18^th Brigade under General Fry attacked the centre and north of the Turkish line, with the objective of taking the old Mosque. The 16^th Brigade under General Delamain, fighting shoulder to shoulder with the 18^th Brigade, attacked the centre and south of the Turkish line, with the objective of taking the old Fort. In the ensuing assault, the Anglo-Indian troops faced a heavy barrage of rifle fire from the Turkish line. Over the next several hours, the British assault made slow but steady progress, with the occasional rush, most notably again by the Dorsets. Eventually, after throwing all of his reserves into the assault, the flanking movements of Delamain's 16^th Brigade forced the Turks to abandon the fort, while further north up the line, the predominantly Arab force took flight, leaving the British in possession of the field. It was a decisive Turkish defeat; they suffered between 1,500 and 2,000 casualties, while another 150 became prisoners of war. The British lost 4 officers, 21 British and 29 Indian other ranks killed and 17 British officers, 4 Indian officers, 186 British and 228 Indians wounded.

Pjecen blev taget i brug i 1901 og havde en maksimal skudvidde på ca. 5 km. Den var ustabil under skydning, da den helt manglende en rekylbremse.

En forbedret udgave - 2.75in BL Mountain Gun - påbegyndtes indfaset fra 1912. Batterierne i kolonierne og Territorial Army rådede ved krigens udbrud endnu kun over pjecer af den ældre model.

Det må derfor antages, at de to batterier var udrustet med pjecer af ældre model.

Basra

General Barrett immediately began to make preparations to continue the offensive against the Turks at Baljaniya, when on November 20th he received news from Sheik Mohammerah that as a result of their defeat at Sahil, the Turks had not only abandoned Baljaniya, but also Basra, and had retreated to Amara well up the Tigris River. This news was soon confirmed, and it was also learnt that widespread looting had broken out in Basra. Accordingly, on November 21st, the HMS Espiegle and HMS Odin carefully navigated past a nearly complete obstruction made up of a number of ships sunk by the Turks in the Shatt, and arrived at Basra. They found the Basra customs house engulfed in flames, and rampant looting throughout the city, which was at once put to an end by a naval landing party. The next morning, looting began again, and it was again brought to an end by another naval landing party. By noon, General Barrett's main force had reached Basra after a long and tiring night march. Basra was officially occupied on November 23rd with a ceremonial parade and the raising of the Union Jack over the city. Sir Percy Cox, the chief political agent with Expeditionary Force 'D' publicly read in Arabic an official statement of British intentions...

Expeditionary Force 'D' had proven to be far more successful than anyone imagined. The 'ever victorious army' as it would become known, had managed to capture a major Turkish city without a single defeat along the way and with relatively few casualties. In India, the success of 'D' led some to begin to dream of a greater prize - Baghdad.

Meanwhile, in Constantinople, Enver Pasha was incensed at the loss of Basra, and decided that the Anglo-Indian force must be removed for good from Mesopotamia. He therefore at once dispatched the troops required to do just that. Although Basra was secured by the British in November 1914, it was yet to be seen if Force 'D' could withstand the 25,000 man strong Turkish counter-attack that would hit them hard at Shaiba in the not so distant future.

Om flodkanonbåde

HMS Odin og Espiegle (bygget 1901-1903) var udrustet med 4 stk. 4" kanoner samt 2-3 maskingeværer.

HMS Dalhousie var af ældre dato og havde en fortid i Royal Indian Marine 8). Daværende Søløjtnant Cuthbert Helsham Heath-Caldwell, som blev tilkommanderet skibet 26. september 1914, beskrev det som "... thirty years old, and could neither fight nor run away." Oplysninger om bevæbning foreligger ikke.

Jane's Fighting Ships 1919 viser et utydeligt billede af HMS Cadmus, der var af same klasse som HMS Odin og Espiegle.

Indtil billeder af de oprindelige fartøjer måtte dukke op, må billeder af den fra 1915 anvendte Fly (= flue) klasse tjene som illustrationer.

Fly klassen omfattede: Blackfly, Butterfly, Caddisfly, Cranefly, Dragonfly, Firefly, Gadfly, Greenfly, Greyfly, Hoverfly, Mayfly, Sawfly, Sedgefly, Snakefly, Stonefly og Waterfly.

Hovedarmeringen bestod en 4" kanon på fordækket, mens den sekundære armering var en 12-pdr kanon, som var monteret på øverste dæk. Yderligere var kanonbådene bevæbnet med 5-8 maskingeværer. Besætningen bestod af 22 mand. Tophastigheden var 9,5 knob/timen. Fartøjerne var stort set fladbundede.

Under bygningen bar kanonbådene kodebetegnelsen China Gunboats for at skjule deres bestemmelsessted - Mesopotamien. I tjenesten her blev de betegnet som River Monitors.

For yderligere billeder af Fly klassen samt andre fartøjer på Eufrat og Tigris henvises til The Royal Navy's Tigris and Euphrates River Gunboats, hvorfra også ovenstående oplysninger om Fly klassen stammer.

Infrastrukturen i Mesopotamien var beskeden og store dele af landet var end ikke kortlagt.

Under de senere operationer kom floderne Eufrat og Tigris derfor til at spille en stor rolle, da de i mange tilfælde var de eneste anvendelige forsyningsruter.

Kilder

1. A History of the British Cavalry 1816-1919, Volume 6: Mesopotamia, 1914-1918 af The Marquess of Anglesey, Leo Cooper, London 1996, ISBN 0-85052-433-4.
2. History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery - Forgotten Fronts and Home Base, 1914-18 af Sir Martin Farndale, Royal Artillery Institution, London 1988, ISBN 1-870114-05-1.
3. Artikler af Oberstløjtnant A.J. Baker i History of the First World War, Volume 3, No. 9 og No. 10, Purnell, BPC Publishing Ltd., London 1970.
4. India's Army af Donovan Jackson, Purnell and Sons, London 1940.
5. The Indian Army 1914-1947 af Ian Summer, Osprey Elite 72, London 2001, ISBN 1-84176-196-6.
6. The Indian Expeditionary Force 'D' og The 6^th (Poona) Division, The Story of the British Army in the Great War.

Per Finsted

Noter:

1) The Trucial States var indtil 1971 betegnelsen på De forenede arabiske Emirater. For yderligere oplysninger se f.eks. artiklen på The Free Dictionary.

2) Hvert batteri bestod af 302 mand, 164 muldyr samt 6 stk. 2,75-inch Mountain Gun, der blev transporteret på muldyrene. Artilleriafdelingen var under kommando af oberstløjtnant H.D. Grier, med majorerne E.E. Edlmann og H.J. Cotter som chef for 23. henholdsvis 30. Batteri. (Kilde 2.)

3) Styrken omfattede endvidere Brigade Signal Section, 22^nd Company/3^rd Sappers and Miners, 125^th Combined Field Ambulance (3 indiske delinger og 1 engelsk deling) samt 13^th Mule Corps (plus et kommando fra 12^th Mule Corps). (Kilde 6.)

4) Den beredne styrke bestod af 4 engelske og 6 indiske officerer, 216 underofficerer og menige, samt 20 indfødte hjælpere (followers), 236 heste og 8 kameler. (Kilde 1.)

5) Til disse hørte blandt andet 6^th (Poona) Divisional Headquarters og 17^th Field Company/3^rd Sappers & Miners. (Kilde 2.) Divisionens tredje brigade - 17^th (Ahmednagar)Brigade - ankom først til operationsområdet i slutningen af november 1914 - efter erobringen af Basra.

6) Baljaniya ligger cirka midtvejs mellem Sahil og Basra.

7) Fra British Artillery Weapons & Ammunition 1914-1918 af Ian V. Hogg og L.F. Thurston, Ian Allan Ltd., Surrey 1972, SBN 7110-0381-5.

8) Royal Indian Marine var oprindelig Det ostindiske Kompagnis flådestyrke - Bombay Marinen. I den aktuelle periode havde styrken opgaver i det nære kystforsvar af Indien, mens den engelske flåde varetog de ydre opgaver. Oplysninger om den indiske flåde findes f.eks. på hjemmesiden Indian Navy.